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Nuclear Power in Russia

(26 June 2009)

• Russia is moving steadily forward with plans for much expanded role of nuclear energy, doubling output by 2020.
• Efficiency of nuclear generation has increased dramatically since the mid 1990s.
• Electricity demand is rising strongly.
• Exports are a major policy and economic objective. 

Contents 

• Electricity Supply 
• Present Nuclear Capacity 
• Extending Nuclear Capacity 
• Reactor Technology 
• Improving reactor performance 
• Uranium resources and mining 
• Fuel Cycle Facilities: front end 
• International Uranium Enrichment Centre (IUEC) 
• Used Fuel and Reprocessing 
• Decommissioning 
• Organisation 
• Exports 
• International Outlook 
• Research & Development 
• Public Opinion 
• Non-proliferation 
• Appendix: Background: Soviet nuclear culture 

Russia's first nuclear power plant, and the first in the world to produce electricity, was the 5 MWe Obninsk reactor, in 1954. Russia's first two commercial-scale nuclear power plants started up in 1963-64, then in 1971-73 the first of today's production models were commissioned. By the mid 1980s Russia had 25 power reactors in operation, but the nuclear industry was beset by problems. The Chernobyl accident led to a resolution of these, as outlined in the Appendix.

Between the 1986 Chernobyl accident and mid 1990s, only one nuclear power station was commissioned in Russia, the 4-unit Balakovo, with unit 3 being added to Smolensk. Economic reforms following the collapse of the Soviet Union meant an acute shortage of funds for nuclear developments, and a number of projects were stalled. But by the late 1990s exports of reactors to Iran, China and India were negotiated and Russia's stalled domestic construction program was revived as far as funds allowed.

Around 2000 nuclear construction revived and Rostov-1 (now known as Volgodonsk-1), the first of the delayed units, started up in 2001, joining 21 GWe already on the grid. This greatly boosted morale in the Russian nuclear industry. It was followed by Kalinin-3 in 2004.

By 2006 the government's resolve to develop nuclear power had firmed and there were projections of adding 2-3 GWe per year to 2030 in Russia as well as exporting plants to meet world demand for some 300 GWe of new nuclear capacity in that time frame.

Electricity supply  

Russia's electricity supply, formerly centrally controlled by RAO Unified Energy System (UES) , faces a number of acute constraints. First, demand is rising strongly after more than a decade of stagnation, secondly some 50 GWe of generating plant (more than a quarter of it) in the European part of Russia comes to the end of its design life by 2010, and thirdly Gazprom has cut back on the very high level of natural gas supplies for electricity generation because it can make about five times as much money by exporting the gas to the west (27% of EU gas comes from Russia). UES' gas-fired plants burned about 60% of the gas marketed in Russia by Gazprom, and it is aimed to halve this by 2020. (Also, by 2020, the Western Siberian gas fields will be so depleted that they supply only a tenth of current Russian output, compared with nearly three quarters now.) Also there are major regional grid constraints so that a significant proportion of the capacity of some plants cannot be used.

Electricity production reached 1016 billion kWh in 2007, with 160 billion kWh (16%) coming from nuclear power, 67% from gas and coal and 18% from hydro.  In 2005 net export was 12 TWh and final consumption was 650 TWh (after distribution losses of 113 and energy sector use of 178 TWh). Nuclear capacity is about 10% of total 211 GWe. Electricity demand is projected to grow to 1426 billion kWh in 2015 (or maybe 1600 billion kWh in high scenario) and to 1700 to 2000 billion kWh by 2020, requiring 340 to 390 GWe total by then, requiring US$ 420 to $540 billion investment.  Early in 2008 the projected annual electricity demand growth to 2020 was put at 4%.  2008 nuclear production was 162.3 billion kWh.

Nuclear electricity output is rising strongly due simply to better performance of the nuclear plants, with capacity factors leaping from 56% to 76% 1998-2003 and then on to 79.5% in 2008.  Energoatom aims for 90% capacity factor by 2015.   In gross terms, output is projected to grow from about 150 billion kWh in 2005 to 166 in 2010, and 239 billion kWh in 2016 (18.6% of total). or more soberly to 230 billion kWh in 2020. Nuclear generating capacity is planned to grow more than 50% from 23 GWe gross (21.7 net) in 2006 to 35 GWe in 2016, and at least double to 51 GWe by 2020.

In 2006 Rosatom announced a target of nuclear providing 23% of electricity by 2020 and 25% by 2030, but 2007 plans approved by the government have scaled this back a little, and in 2009 it was pruned back more (see: Extending Nuclear Capacity below).

In parallel with this Russia is greatly increasing its hydro-electric capacity, aiming to increase by 60% to 2020 and double it by 2030. Hydro OGK is planning to commission 5 GWe by 2011. The 3 GWe Boguchanskaya plant in Siberia is being developed in collaboration with Rusal, for aluminium smelting. The aim is to have almost half of Russia's electricity from nuclear and hydro by 2030.

Following proposals worked out over several years, a government order consolidating the country's nuclear utilities was signed in 2001. Rosenergoatom, which in 2008 became Energoatom, took over all civil reactors including those under construction, and related infrastructure.

Energoatom operates within the context of 2003 state energy policy, and of state funding for new plants to meet policy goals. A policy priority is to reduce the use of natural gas for electricity and to double the nuclear output by 2020. The growth is to come from lifetime extension of first-generation units, upgrading, increased availability to 85% average (and hopefully more), together with new plants.

UES electricity tariffs were planned to increase from (US$) 1.1 c/kWh in 2001 to 1.9 c/kWh in 2005 and 2.4 c/kWh in 2015. However, only much smaller increases have so far been approved by the government, and even these have attracted wide opposition. However, electricity supplied is now being fully paid for, in contrast to the situation in the mid 1990s.

In February 2007 UES said that it was aiming to raise up to US$ 15 billion by selling shares in as many as 15 power generation companies, having increased its investment target by 2010 from $79 to $118 billion. Late in 2006 UES raised $459 million by selling 14.4% of one of its generators, OGK-5, and since then the UES sell-off has continued with investors committing to continued expansion.  In mid 2008 RAO UES was wound up, having sold off all its assets.  Some of these were bought by EU utilities, for instance Finland's Fortum bought at auction 76.5% of the small utility TGC-10, which operates in well-developed industrial regions of the Urals and Western Siberia.  From July 2008, 25% of all Russia's power is sold on the competitive market.  The wholesale power market is expected to be fully liberalised by 2011.

Present nuclear capacity  

Russia's nuclear plants, with 31 operating reactors totalling 21,743 MWe, comprise:

• 4 first generation VVER-440/230 or similar pressurised water reactors,
• 2 second generation VVER-440/213 pressurised water reactors,
• 9 third generation VVER-1000 pressurised water reactors with a full containment structure,
• 11 RBMK light water graphite reactors now unique to Russia (apart from a larger unit in Lithuania). The four oldest of these were commissioned in the 1970s at Kursk and Leningrad and are of some concern to the Western world. A further Kursk unit is under construction.
• 4 small graphite-moderated BWR reactors in eastern Siberia, constructed in the 1970s for cogeneration (EGP-6 models on linked map).
• One BN-600 fast-breeder reactor.

Apart from Bilibino, several reactors supply district heating - a total of over 8 PJ/yr.

 

 

Power Reactors in Operation   

Reactor	Type V=PWR	MWe net, each	Commercial operation	Scheduled close
Balakovo 1-2	V-320	950	5/86, 1/88	2015, 2017
Balakovo 3-4	V-320	950	4/89, 12/93	2018, 2023
Beloyarsk 3	BN600 FBR	560	11/81	2010
Bilibino 1-4	LWGR EGP-6	11	4/74-1/77	2009, 09, 11, 12
Kalinin 1-2	V-338	950	6/85, 3/87	2014, 2016
Kalinin 3	V-320	950	12/04	2034
Kola 1-2	V-230	411	12/73, 2/75	2018, 2019
Kola 3-4	V-213	411	12/82, 12/84	2011, 2014
Kursk 1-2	RBMK	925	10/77, 8/79	2021, 2024
Kursk 3-4	RBMK	925	3/84, 2/86	2013, 2015
Leningrad 1-2	RBMK	925	11/74, 2/76	2019, 2022
Leningrad 3-4	RBMK	925	6/80, 8/81	2009, 2011, +20 yr
Novovoronezh 3-4	V-179	385	6/72, 3/73	2016, 2017
Novovoronezh 5	V-187	950	2/81	2010
Smolensk 1-3	RBMK	925	9/83, 7/85,1/90	2013, 2020
Volgodonsk 1	V-320	950	3/01	2030
Total: 31		21,743 MWe

Life extension and completing construction

Generally, reactors are licensed for 30 years from first power. Late in 2000, plans were announced for lifetime extensions of twelve first-generation reactors* totalling 5.7 GWe, and the extension period envisaged is now 15 to 25 years, necessitating major investment in refurbishing them. Generally the VVER-440 and RBMK units will get 15-year life extensions and the nine VVER-1000 units 25 years.  So far 15-year extensions have been achieved for Novovoronezh-3 & 4, Kursk-1, Kola-1 & 2 and Leningrad-1 & 2.  Bilibino 1 & 2 have been given 5-year licence extensions.  Kola 3 & 4, Novovoronezh 5 and Beloyarsk 3 are next in line, with the six RBMK units mentioned below.

* Leningrad 1&2, Kursk 1&2, Kola 1&2, Bilibino 1-4, Novovoronezh 3&4.  

In 2006, Rosatom said it was considering lifetime extensions and uprating all of its eleven operating RBMK reactors. Following significant design modifications made after the Chernobyl accident, as well as extensive refurbishment including replacement of fuel channels, a 45-year lifetime is seen as realistic for the 1000 MWe units. In 2005 they provided 48% of Russia's nuclear-generated electricity. Upgrading of Leningrad 3 is under way with a view to 20-year life extension, to 2029, and a major contract for upgrading unit 4 over 2008-11 followed that.  Kursk 4 is next and Kursk 2 & 3 with Smolensk 3 will soon follow.  The R&D Institute of Power Engineering was preparing plans for 5% uprating of the later Leningrad, Kursk and Smolensk units.

Several more reactors have been under construction. A mid-2006 announcement pledged US$ 665 million in 2007 towards completing Rostov / Volgodonsk-2, Kalinin-4 and Beloyarsk-4. Balakovo 5 & 6 disappeared from the list and their completion has been deferred due to UES puting them as low priority (but see mention of Rusal proposal below).

There has been some uncertainty about completing Kursk-5 - an upgraded RBMK design. However, Rosatom is keen to see it completed and in January 2007 the Duma's energy committee recommended that the government fund its completion by 2010. It is more than 70% complete and requires US$ 755 million to finish, plus a similar amount for grid improvement. In March 2007 the Industry Ministry recommended to the government that work proceed and Rosenergoatom then applied for 27 billion roubles (US$ 1 billion) from the ministry's 2008-10 federal budget to complete it. This did not materialise so its completion is contingent upon finding other funds, and discussions with Sberbank and industrial electricity consumers such as steel producers were continuing as of May 2009.  All other RBMK reactors - long condemned by the EU - are due to close by 2024, leaving it technologically isolated.

Extending nuclear capacity

Rosatom's initial proposal for a rapid expansion of nuclear capacity was based on the cost effectiveness of completing the 9 GWe of then partially built plant. To get the funds, Minatom offered Gazprom the opportunity to invest in some of the partly completed nuclear plants. The argument was that the US$ 7.3 billion required for the whole 10 GWe (including the just-completed Rostov-1) would be quickly recouped from gas exports if the new nuclear plant reduced the need to burn that gas domestically.

In September 2006 Rosatom announced a target of nuclear providing 23% of electricity by 2020, thus commissioning two 1200 MWe plants per year from 2011 to 2014 and then three per year until 2020 - some 31 GWe and giving some 44,000 MWe of nuclear capacity then.

 

 In February 2008 the earlier federal target plan (FTP) to 2020 was endorsed with little change except than an extra five  VVER-1200 units were added as "maximum scenario" or "extra" in the last few years to 2020.  As well as the 4800 MWe capacity now under construction, a further 12,000 MWe was planned for completion mostly by 2016, and then another 16,000 to 22,000 MWe proposed by 2020.  Several new sites are involved.  Some US$ 282 billion was to be invested by 2015, and a further $204 billion to 2020 on the projects listed.  Also the new 300 MWe units were listed as being VBER-300 PWR types.

More significantly, the Ministry of Industry and Energy (MIE) and Rosatom were charged with promptly developing an action plan to attract investment into power generation. It is envisaged that by 2020 much generation will be privatized and competitive, while the state will control natural monopoly functions such as the grid.

From January 2009 the FTP is replaced by Rosatom's long-term activity program.  This includes Kaliningrad and Kursk, both subject to private finance.  However, capacity targets and expenditure are much as above.  By 2030 nuclear share of electricity is expected to grow to 25%, from present 16%. 

However, by April 2009 reduced electricity demand expectations due to the recession caused the whole construction program outlined above to be scaled back, and some projects put on hold.  Ten units were deferred pending "economic upturn and electricity demand growth", expected in about two years.  See Table below, where three units have been moved from planned to proposed accordingly.  From mid 2009, half the capital for new nuclear plants will come from Rosatom budget and half from the state.

Major Power Reactors under Construction and Planned 

Plant	Type	MWe	Status, Start Construction	Commercial operation
Rostov /Volgodonsk 2	V-320	1000	Const	2010
Kalinin 4	V-320	1000	Const	2011
Kursk 5	RBMK	1000	Const	indefinite
Vilyuchinsk	KLT-40S	40 x 2	Const 4/07, then 5/09	2012
Beloyarsk 4	BN-800 FBR	800	Const	2014 or 2016
Novovoronezh II -1	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Const 6/08	2012-13
Leningrad II-1	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Const 10/08	10/2013
Subtotal of 8		6280 gross, 59800 net
Novovoronezh II -2	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Const 5/09?	2015
Rostov /Volgodonsk 3	V-320	1100	Planned 2009	2013 or 2014
Leningrad II -2	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Planned 2010	10/2014
Rostov /Volgodonsk 4	V-320	1100	Planned 2010	2014 or 2016
Baltic 1 (Kaliningrad)	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Planned 2010	2016
Leningrad II -3	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Planned 2011	2017
Leningrad II -4	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Planned 2014	2019
Baltic 2 (Kaliningrad)	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Planned 2013	2018
subtotal of 8		9600 gross, 9360 net
Nizhegorod 1	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Deferred	was 2016
Seversk 1	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Deferred	was 2015
Tver 1	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Deferred	was 2015
South Ural 1	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Deferred	was 2016
Novovoronezh II -3	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2017 ?
Tver 2	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Deferred	was 2017
Seversk 2	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Deferred	was 2017
Tsentral 1	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Deferred	was 2017
Kola II - 1	VK-300 or VBER 300	300	Proposed	2017
Nizhegorod 2	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	was 2018
South Ural 2	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	was 2018
Kola II - 2	VK-300 or VBER 300	300	Proposed	2018
Novovoronezh II -4	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2019 ?
Tver 3	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2019
South Ural 3	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2019
Tsentral 2	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	was 2019
Kola II - 3	VK-300 or VBER 300	300	Proposed	2019
Primorsk 1	VK-300 or VBER 300	300	Proposed	2019
Nizhegorod 3	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2019
Nizhegorod 4	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2020
Tsentral 3	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2019 ?
Tsentral 4	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2020 ?
South Ural 4	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2020
Tver 4	AES-2006 / VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2020
Kola II - 4	VK-300 or VBER 300	300	Proposed	2020
Primorsk 2	VK-300 or VBER 300	300	Proposed	2020
Pevek	KLT-40S	40 x 2	Proposed	2020
subtotal of 28 units		25,880

 South Urals was to be BN-800, and may revert.

Seversk is near Tomsk, Tver is near Kalinin, Nizhegorod is a new site near Nizhniy Novgorod, 400 km east of Moscow, and Tsentral (central) in Yaroslavl or Kostrama regions.  South Ural is 140 km west of Chelyabinsk.  Primorsk is in the far east,  as is Vilyuchinsk in the Kamchatka region, and Pevek in the Chukotka Autonomous Region near Bilibino.  The last two are floating nuclear power or cogeneration plants.

Note: On the basis of the above figures we have listed those units to Volgodonsk 4 (Rostov), Leningrad 4 and Baltic 2 at Kaliningrad as "planned" (8 x 1200), and the balance of 28 units total 25,880 MWe to 2020/22, including those ten deferred in 2009, as "proposed". 

Rostov/ Volgodonsk 3 & 4 environmental statement and construction application were approved by Rostechnadzor in May 2009, and the construction licence was granted to Energoatom in June.  Rosatom is bringing forward the completion dates of the two units to 2013 and 2014 and it has decided that units 3 & 4 will have V-320 type of VVER with improved steam generators and capacity of 1100 MWe.  This is expected to save some RUR 10 billion relative to the AES-2006 technology.  Nizhniy Novgorod Atomenergoproekt (NN AEP) is principal contractor for units 3 & 4, expected to cost RUR 146 billion (US$ 4.8 billion).  It expects unit 2 which it is building to start up in October 2009.

Novovoronezh phase II is being built by Moscow AtomEnergoProekt, with work starting in 2007.  This is the lead plant for deploying the AES-2006 units.  First concrete was poured for unit 1 of this (unit 6 at the site) in June 2008 and it is expected to be commissioned in 2012, with unit 2 following in 2013, at a total cost of US$ 5 billion for 2136 MWe net.  Rostechnadzor licensed construction of unit 2 in October 2008.  It is on one of the main hubs of the Russian grid.

A general contract for Leningrad II was signed with St Petersburg AtomEnergoProekt (SPb AEP) in August 2007 and Rostechnadzor granted site licences in September 2007.  A specific engineering, procurement and construction contract for the first two units was signed in March 2008, and first concrete was poured on schedule for unit 1 in October 2008.  This 1170 MWe unit should be commissioned in October 2013 and the second a year later at a cost of US$ 5.8 billion ($2480/kW) possibly including some infrastructure.  Total project cost is estimated at $6.6 billion.  Each reactor will also provide 1.05 TJ/hr (9.17 PJ/yr) of district heating.  They are designed to replace the oldest two Leningrad units.  A design contract for the next two units was signed with SPb AEP in September 2008.

Turbine generators for the new plants are mainly from Power Machines, which has six orders for high-speed turbines: four of 1200 MWe for Novovoronezh and Leningrad, plus smaller ones for Kalinin and Beloyarsk.  The company plans also to offer 1200 MWe low-speed turbines from 2014 to compete with Alstom Atomenergomash.

The Seversk plant near Tomsk was due to start up in 2015 after a construction start in 2010, with the second AES-2006 unit in 2017, but has been deferred.  Seversk is the site of a major enrichment plant and former weapons facilities.  A design contract for the Arabelle low-speed turbine generators has been signed between Moscow AEP which is responsible for design and engineering, and Alstom Atomenergomash, the joint venture between French turbine manufacturer Alstom and Atomenergomash, an AEP subsidiary.

Apart from the February 2008 plan, Rosatom subsidiary InterRAO EES proposed a Baltic or Baltiskaya nuclear plant in Kaliningrad on the Baltic coast to generate electricity for export, and with up to 49% European equity.  Private equity would be an innovation for Russia. The plant would comprise two 1200 MWe VVER units designed by St Petersburg Atomenergoproekt, sited at Neman, close to the Lithuanian border and costing some RUR 134 billion (EUR 6 billion).  There appears to be a political agenda involved and it would directly compete with the Baltic states plus Poland plan for a new unit at Visaginas near Ignalina in Lithuania, and it is designed to be integrated with the EU grid.  Exports to Germany via Poland, requiring some EUR 1 billion in transmission infrastructure, are proposed.  There is already substantial transmission capacity east through Lithuania to the St Petersburg region.  The European equity would be in order to secure markets for the power.

Preliminary work is planned to begin in 2009 with construction start in 2010 and the first unit is planned to come on line in 2016, after 54 months construction, supplying Energoatom.  It is expected to cost EUR 4 billion and the second one following two years behind about half that.  The plan was approved in mid 2008 as an amendment to the federal target program (FTP) of 2007, and Rosatom approved construction in August 2008. Licensing by Rostechnadzor is expected by the end of 2009.  Czech power utility CEZ has expressed interest in the project, and it now appears that it may be the initial project involving Siemens in close collaboration with Rosatom, enhancing the project's credibility for foreign investment.

The Baltic plant and two other ventures with Rusal (see below) will require private equity.

The Nizhegorod plant near Nizhniy Novgorod is to comprise four AES-1200 units of 1150 MWe net and costing RUR 269 billion (US$ 9.4 billion), the first coming on line in 2016 to address a regional energy deficit.  In February 2008 Rosatom appointed Nizhny-Novgorod Atomenergoproekt (NN-AEP) as the principal designer of the plant, and sites at Monakovo and Uren are under consideration, with decision to be made late in 2009.  Bids will be invited for construction.

UES was reported to support construction of new nuclear plants in the regions of Yaroslavl, Chelyabinsk (South Urals) and Vladimir, with two to four units at each. 

Further Power Reactors Proposed, uncertain status 

Unit	Type	MWe each gross	Start-up
Leningrad II 5-6	PWR AES-2006	1200
Kursk II 1-4	PWR AES-2006	1200
Smolensk II 1-4	PWR AES-2006	1200
North-west 1 & 2	BWR VK-300	300
Tatar 1 - 3	PWR AES-2006	1200
Beloyarsk 5	BREST	300
Yaroslavl	?
Chelyabinsk (S.Urals)	?
Vladimir	?
Plants with low priority for UES:
Bashkira 1-4	PWR
Balokovo 5 & 6	PWR for Rusal smelter	1000	2013?
Far East 1-4	PWR, 1/3  for Rusal smelter	1000

Transition to Fast Reactors

The BN-800 Beloyarsk-4 fast reactor designed by OKBM is intended to replace the BN-600 unit 3, though the US$ 1.22 billion project has been delayed by lack of funds.  It now seems to have adequate funding (of US$ 2.12 billion) for 2012 start-up.  The construction funds include $280 million in 2008 and $500 million in each of 2009 and 2010.

In May 2009 St Petersburg Atomenergopoekt said it was starting design work on a BN-800 reactor for China, where two are proposed at coastal sites.

Rosatom's long-term strategy up to 2050 involves moving to inherently safe nuclear plants using fast reactors with a closed fuel cycle and MOX fuel.  Fossil fuels for power generation are to be largely phased out.  Starting 2020-25 it is envisaged that fast neutron reactors will play an increasing role in Russia, though these will probably be new designs such as BREST with a single core and no blanket assembly for plutonium production.  An optimistic scenario has expansion to 90 GWe nuclear capacity by 2050.  

Aluminium and nuclear power

In 2006 the major aluminium producer SUAL (which in March 2007 became part of RUSAL) signed an agreement with Rosatom to support investment in new nuclear capacity at Kola, to power expanded aluminium smelting there from 2013. Four units totalling 1000 MWe were envisaged for Kola stage 2 underpinned by a 25-year contract with SUAL, but economic feasibility is in doubt and the project appears to have been dropped and replaced by two others.

Since 2007 Rosatom and RUSAL, now the world's largest aluminium and alumina producer, have been undertaking a feasibility study on a nuclear power generation and aluminium smelter at Primorye in Russia's far east.  This proposal is taking shape as a US$ 10 billion project involving four 1000 MWe reactors and a 600,000 t/yr smelter with Atomstroyexport having a controlling share in the nuclear side.  The smelter will require about one third of the output from 4 GWe, and electricity exports to China and North and South Korea are envisaged.

In October 2007 a $7 billion project was announced for the world's biggest aluminium smelter in the Saratov region, complete with two new nuclear reactors to power it.  The existing Balakovo nuclear power plant of four 950 MWe reactors would be expanded with two more, serving a 1.05 million tonne per year aluminium smelter to be built nearby by RUSAL.  This would require about 15 billion kWh/yr - a little over one third of the output of the expanded power plant.  Aluminium smelting is energy-intensive and requires reliable low-cost electricity to be competitive.  Increasingly it is also carbon-constrained -  this smelter will emit about 1.7 million tonnes of CO2 per year just from anode consumption.

RUSAL has announced an agreement with the regional government which will become effective when the nuclear plant expansion is approved by Rosatom. Balakovo units 5 & 6 have been listed as prospective for some time but were dropped off the 2007-08 Rosatom plan for completing 26 new power reactors by 2020 as they were low priority for UES grid supply. Balakovo is on the Volga R. 800 km SE of Moscow.  Feasibility studies for both RUSAL projects are due to be completed at the end of 2008.

Heating

In addition, 5 GW of thermal power plants (mostly AST-500 integral PWR type) for district and industrial heat will be constructed at Arkhangelesk (4 VK-300 units commissioned 2009-16), Voronezh (2 units 2012-18), Saratov, Dimitrovgrad and (small-scale, KLT-40 type PWR) at Chukoyka and Severodvinsk.  Russian nuclear plants provided 11.4 PJ of district heating in 2005, and this is expected to increase to 30.8 PJ by about 2010.  (A 1000 MWe reactor produces about 95 PJ per year internally to generate the electricity.)

Floating nuclear power plants

Rosatom is also planning to construct seven or eight floating nuclear power plants by 2015.  The first was reported to have begun construction in April 2007 at Severodvinsk with intended completion in 2010 originally to supply the Severodvinsk region, and the second was planned for 2012 commissioning at Pevek on the Chukotka peninsula in the far northeast, near Bilibino.  Each has two 35 MWe KLT-40S nuclear reactors, though reactor units may be larger or smaller.  (If primarily for desalination this set-up is known as APVS-80.)  

The larger end of the floating nuclear power plant range uses a pair of 325 MWe VBER-300 reactors on a 49,000 tonne barge, and a smaller one could use a single RITM-200 reactor providing 55 MWe, this being a possible successor to the KLT-40.  ATETs-80 and ATETs-200 are twin-reactor cogeneration units using KLT-40 and may be floating or land-based.  The former produces 85 MWe plus 120,000 m3/day of potable water.  The small ABV-6 reactor is 38 MW thermal and a pair mounted on a 97-metre barge is known as Volnolom floating NPP, producing 12 MWe plus 40,000 m3/day of potable water by reverse osmosis. 

The first small floating nuclear power plant (SP FNPP) was expected to cost US$ 337 million (including $30 million already spent in design) - 80% financed by Energoatom and 20% by Sevmash.  The keel was laid in April 2007 at Sevmash, but in August 2008 Rosatom cancelled the contract and transferred it to the Baltiysky Zavod shipyard at St Petersburg, which has experience in building nuclear icebreakers.  A new keel laying took place in May 2009 and the two reactors are due to be delivered from OKBM Afrikantov soon after.  The steam generators are finished.  The new site for its deployment is Vilyuchinsk, Kamchatka peninsula, with completion in 2011 and grid connection in 2012.   The 21,500 tonne barge will be 144 metres long.  Three 12-year operating cycles are envisaged, with maintenance between them.

As of early 2009, four floating plants were designated for northern Yakutia in connection with the Elkon uranium mining project in southern Yakutia, and in 2007 an agreement was signed with the Sakha Republic (Yakutia region) to build the first of them, using smaller ABV reactors.  Five were intended for use by Gazprom for offshore oil and gas field development and for operations on the Kola peninsula near Finland and the Yamal peninsula in central Siberia.  Electricity cost is expected to be much lower than from present alternatives.

Heavy engineering

The main reactor component supplier is OMZ's Komplekt-Atom-Izhora facility which is doubling the production of large forgings so as to be able to manufacture three or four pressure vessels per year from 2011.  OMZ is expected to produce the forgings for all new domestic AES-2006 model VVER-1200 nuclear reactors (four per year from 2016) plus exports.  At present Izhora can produce the heavy high-quality forgings required for Russia's VVER-1000 pressurized water reactors at the rate of two per year.  These forgings include reactor pressure vessels, steam generators, and heavy piping.  In 2008 the company is reconstructing its 12,000 tonne hydraulic press, claimed to be the largest in Europe, and a second stage of work will increase that capacity to 15,000 tonnes.

Reactor technology  

The guidelines for developing large-scale nuclear power in Russia were set out as follows early in the decade: 

• Power costs not more than 3 cents/kWh,
• Capital costs under US$ 1000/kW,
• Service life at least 50 years,
• Utilisation rate at least 90%.

The main reactor design now being deployed is the V-320 version of the VVER-1000, from OKB Gidropress (Experimental Design Bureau Hydropress), with 950-1000 MWe net output.

Advanced versions of this VVER-1000 with western instrument and control systems have been built at Tianwan in China and are being built at Kudankulam in India - as AES-91 and AES-92 nuclear power plants respectively. The former was bid for Finland in 2002. The latter was bid for Sanmen and Yangjiang in China in 2005 and was accepted for Belene in Bulgaria in 2006. (Major components of the two designs are the same except for slightly taller pressure vessel in AES-91, but cooling and safety systems differ. The AES-92 has greater passive safety features, the AES-91 has extra seismic protection. The AES-91 is the first plant to have a core-catcher.)

About 2005 Rosatom (the Federal Atomic Energy Agency) promoted the basic design for VVER-1500 pressurised water reactors by Gidropress as a priority. Design was expected to be complete in 2007.

However, this plan was overtaken by development of the AES-2006 power plant incorporating a third-generation standardised VVER-1200 reactor of 1170 MWe, This is an evolutionary development of the well-proven VVER-1000 in the AES-92 plant, with longer life (50 years not 30), greater power, and greater efficiency (36.56% instead of 31.6%).  The lead units will be built at Novovoronezh II, to start operation in 2012-13 followed by Leningrad II for 2013-14.  Both plants will use Areva's Teleperm safety instrument and control systems.  Leningrad II is quoted as the  reference plant for further units at Tianwan in China.

An AES-2006 plant will consist of two of these OKB Gidropress reactor units expected to run for 50 years with capacity factor of 90%. Capital cost was said to be US$ 1200/kW (though the first contract of them is more like $2100/kW) and construction time 54 months. They have enhanced safety including that related to earthquakes and aircraft impact with some passive safety features, double containment and core damage frequency of 1x10^-7. Thermal efficiency is 36.56%.

Main Russian PWR nuclear power reactors
(in order of development)*  

Generic reactor type	Reactor model	Power plant
VVER-440	V-230
	V-213
VVER-1000	V-320
	V-392	AES-91
	V-392	AES-92
VVER-1200		AES-2006
VVER-1500	V-448?

* Early V numbers referred to models which were widely built in several countries, eg V-230, V-320. Then the V-392 seemed to be a general export design. Later V numbers are project-specific, eg V-446 at Bushehr, Iran, V-412 at Kudankulam, India, V-428 at Tianwan, China and V-466 was bid for Olkiluoto, Finland and is being built at Belene, Bulgaria. V-448 is mentioned as proposed 1500 MWe VVER.

In September 2006 the technology future for Russia was focused on four elements:

• Serial construction of AES-2006 units,
• Fast breeder BN-800,
• Small and medium reactors - KLT-40 and VBER-300 (100-300 MWe),
• HTGR.

Following progress on these the physically larger VVER-1500 design may be completed.

The BN-800 fast neutron (bystry neutron) reactor being built by OKBM at Beloyarsk is designed to supersede the BN-600 unit there and utilise MOX fuel with both reactor-grade and weapons plutonium. Further BN-800 units were planned and a BN-1800 was being designed for operation from 2020. This represents a technological advantage for Russia and has significant export or collaborative potential with Japan.  However, Beloyarsk-4 is likely to be the last such reactor built, with a fertile blanket of depleted uranium around the core.  Further fast reactors will have an integrated core to minimise the potential for weapons proliferation from bred Pu-239.  Beloyarsk-5 is planned as a BREST design.

The BREST lead-cooled fast reactor (Bystry Reaktor so Svintsovym Teplonositelem) is another innovation, from NIKIET, with the first unit being proposed for Beloyarsk-5.  This will be a new-generation fast reactor which dispenses with the fertile blanket around the core and supersedes the BN-600/800 design, to give enhanced proliferation resistance.  See Advanced Reactors paper. 

In 2008 Rosatom and Russian Machines Co put together a joint venture to build a prototype 100 MWe SVBR reactor.  SVBR is modular lead-bismuth cooled fast neutron reactor from OKB Gidropress.  If built in clusters of 10 to 16 units it is claimed to be competitive with VVER types.  See Small Nuclear Reactors paper.

Rosatom has put forward two fast reactor implementation options for government decision in relation to the Advanced Nuclear Technologies Federal Program 2010-2020.  The first focuses on a lead-cooled fast reactor such as BREST with its fuel cycle, and assumes concentration of all resources on this project with a total funding of about RUR 140 billion (about $3.1 billion).  The second scenario assumes parallel development of fast reactors with lead, sodium and lead-bismuth coolants and their associated fuel cycles.  It would cost about RUR 165 billion ($4.7 billion).  The second scenario is viewed as the most favoured, since it is believed to involve lower risks than the first one.  If implemented it would result in technical designs of the Generation IV reactor and associated closed fuel cycles technologies by 2013, and a technological basis of the future innovative nuclear energy system featuring the Generation IV reactors working in closed fuel cycles by 2020.

After many years of promoting the idea, Rosatom approved construction of a nuclear power plant on a barge to supply power and heat to isolated coastal towns.  The contract to build the first unit was let to the Sevmash shipyard in May 2006, but in August 2008 Rosatom cancelled the contract and transferred construction to the Baltiysky Zavod shipyard at St Petersburg.  Two OKBM KLT-40S or KLT-40C reactors derived from those in icebreakers, but with low-enriched fuel (less than 20% U-235), will supply 70 MWe of power plus 586 GJ/hr (5.1 PJ/yr) of heat.  They will be mounted on a 21,500 tonne, 144 m long barge.  Refuelling interval is 3-4 years on site, and at the end of a 12-year operating cycle the whole plant is returned to a shipyard (Zvezdochka, near Sevmash has been mentioned) for a 2-year overhaul and storage of used fuel, before being returned to service.  

A smaller OKBM PWR unit under development is the ABV, with a range of sizes from 45 MW thermal (ABV-6M ) down to 18 MWt (ABV-3), giving 4-18 MWe outputs.  The units are compact, with integral steam generator.  The whole unit of some 600 tonnes (ABV-6) will be factory-produced for ground or barge mounting. The ABV-6M would require a 3500 tonne barge, the ABV-3: 1600 tonne.  The core is similar to that of the KLT-40 except that enrichment is 16.5% and average burnup 95 GWd/t.  Refuelling interval is about 8-10 years, and service life about 50 years.  In mainly desalination mode the ABV-6M is expected to produce 55,000 m3/day of potable water by reverse osmosis.

Exports of combined power and desalination units is planned, with China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Algeria, Cape Verde and Argentina being mentioned as potential buyers, though Russia would probably retain ownership of the plant with operational responsibility, and simply sell the output.

OKBM's VBER-300 PWR is a 295 MWe unit developed from naval power plants and was originally envisaged in pairs as a floating nuclear power plant. As a cogeneration plant it is rated at 200 MWe and 1900 GJ/hr for heat or desalination. The reactor is designed for 60 year life and 90% capacity factor. It was planned to develop it as a land-based unit with Kazatomprom, with a view to exports, and the first unit was to be built at Aktau in Kazakhstan.  However, this agreement has stalled.

The VK-300 boiling water reactor is being developed by the Research & Development Institute of Power Engineering (NIKIET) for both power (250 MWe) and desalination (150 MWe plus 1675 GJ/hr). It has evolved from the VK-50 BWR at Dimitrovgrad, but uses standard components wherever possible, eg the reactor vessel of the VVER-1000. A feasibility study on building 4 cogeneration VK-300 units at Archangelsk was favourable, delivering 250 MWe power and 31.5 TJ/yr heat.

Another reactor type with advanced safety features which has been under development is the 640 MWe V-407 (VVER-640), developed by Gidropress jointly with Siemens (now Areva NP). However, after beginning construction of the first at Sosnovy Bor, funds ran out and it has disappeared from recent plans.

A development of the RBMK was the MKER-800, with much improved safety systems and containment, but this too has been shelved.  Like the RBMK itself, it was designed by VNIPIET (All-Russia Science Research and Design Institute of Power Engineering Technology) at St Petersburg.

In the 1970-80s OKBM undertook substantial research on high temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGRs). In the 1990s it took a lead role in the international GT-MHR (Gas Turbine-Modular Helium Reactor) project based on a General Atomics (US) design. Preliminary design was completed in 2001 and the prototype is to be constructed at Seversk (Tomsk-7, Siberian Chemical Combine) by 2010, with construction of the first 4-module power plant (4x285 MWe) by 2015. Initially it will be used to burn pure ex-weapons plutonium, and replace production reactors which still supply electricity there. But in the longer-term perspective HTGRs are seen as important for burning actinides and later for hydrogen production.

From 2001 Russia has been a lead country in the IAEA Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO). In 2006 Russia joined the Generation-IV International Forum, for which NEA provides the secretariat. Russia Russia is also a member of the NEA's Multinational Design Evaluation Program which is increasingly important in rationalising reactor design criteria.

In March 2008 AtomEnergoProm signed a general framework agreement with Japan's Toshiba Corporation under which they will explore collaboration in the civil nuclear power business.  They are to start feasibility studies to consider cooperation in areas including design and engineering for the construction of new nuclear power plants, manufacturing and maintenance of large equipment, and "front-end civilian nuclear fuel cycle business".  The companies say that the "complementary relations" could lead to the establishment of a strategic partnership.  Toshiba owns 77% of US reactor builder Westinghouse and is also involved with other reactor technology.

Improving reactor performance

A major current emphasis is the improvement in operation of present reactors with better fuels and greater efficiency in their use, closing much of the gap between Western and Russian performance. Fuel developments include the use of burnable poisons - gadolinium and erbium, as well as structural changes to the fuel assemblies.

With uranium-gadolinium fuel and structural changes, VVER-1000 fuel has been pushed out to 4-year endurance and VVER-440 fuel even longer. For VVER-1000, five years is envisaged by 2010, with enrichment levels increasing nearly by one third (from 3.77% to 4.87%) in that time, average burn-up going up by 40% (to 57.7 GWd/t) and operating costs dropping by 5%. With a 3 x 18 month operating cycle, burn-up would be lower (51.3 GWd/t) but load factor could increase to 87%. Comparable improvements were envisaged for later-model VVER-440 units.

For RBMK reactors the most important development has been the introduction of uranium-erbium fuel at all units, though structural changes have helped. As enrichment and erbium content are increased (eg from 2.6% to 2.8% and 0.6% respectively) increased burn-up is possible. Leningrad has implemented the higher-enriched fuel and Kursk is starting to do so.

For the BN-600 fast reactor, improved fuel means up to 560 days between refuelling.

Beyond these initiatives, the basic requirements for fuel have been set as: fuel operational lifetime extended to 6 years, improved burn-up of 70 GWd/tU, and improved fuel reliability. In addition, many nuclear plants will need to be used in load-following mode, and fuel which performs well under variable load conditions will be required.

All RBMK reactors now use recycled uranium from VVER reactors and some has also been used experimentally at Kalinin-2 and Kola-2 VVERs. It is intended to extend this. A related task is to utilise surplus weapons-grade plutonium in MOX fuel for up to seven VVER-1000 reactors from 2008 and the one fast reactor (Beloyarsk-3) from 2007. 

Uranium resources and mining

Russia has substantial economic resources of uranium, with about 10% of world reasonably assured resources plus inferred resources up to US$ 130/kg - 546,000 tonnes U (2007 Red Book).  Exploration expenditure has nearly doubled in two years to about US$ 52 million in 2008. 

In 2007 it produced some 3413 tonnes of uranium from mines but this needs to increase substantially to match increased domestic demand.  Estimate for 2008 is 3880 tonnes.  In 2006 there were three mining projects, in 2008 there are three more under construction and a further three projected.  Cost of production in remote areas is said to be US$ 60-90/kg.

AtomRedMetZoloto (ARMZ) is the state-owned company which took over Tenex and TVEL uranium exploration and mining assets in 2007, as a subsidiary Atomenergoprom.  It inherited 19 projects with a total uranium resource of about 400,000 tonnes, of which 340,000 tonnes are in Elkonskiy uranium region and 60,000 tonnes in Streltsovskiy and Vitimskiy regions.  The rights to all these resources had been transferred from the Federal Subsoil Resources Management Agency (Rosnedra).

JSC ARMZ Holding Company (as it is now known) is responsible for all Russian uranium mine assets and also Russian shares in foreign joint ventures.  In 2008, 78.6% of JSC Priargunsky, all of JSC Khiagda and 97.85% of JSC Dalur was transferred to ARMZ.

In March 2009 the Federal Financial Markets Service of Russia registered RUR 16.4 billion of additional shares in ARMZ placed through a closed subscription to pay for uranium mining assets, on top of a RUR 4 billion issued in mid 2008 to pay for the acquisition of Priargunsky, Khiagda and Dalur.  The new issue reduces SC Rosatom’s holding through Atomenergoprom to about 80%.  Thereupon the government accepted Rosatom’s proposal for ARMZ and Elkonsky Mining and Metallurgical Combine to set up the “open-type joint stock company” EGNK-Project.  The state’s contribution through Rosatom to the EGMK-Project authorized capital will be RUR 2.657 billion, including RUR 2.391 billion in 2009 and RUR 0.266 billion in 2010.  EGMK-Project is being set up to draw up the project and design documentation for Elkonsky Mining and Metallurgical Combine (see below).

Present production by ARMZ is principally from the Transbaikal or Chita region of SE Siberia near the Chinese and Mongolian borders, where major uranium deposits were discovered in 1967, leading to large-scale mining, originally with few environmental controls. Krasnokamensk is the main town serving the mines. 

Several large underground mines operated by JSC Priargunsky Industrial Mining & Chemical Union (PIMCU) supply low-grade ore to a central mill.  Historical production from Priargunsky is reported to be 130,000 tU (some from open cut mines) and current known resources (RAR + IR) are quoted as 133,000 tU at 0.159%U.  2007 production was 3037 tU and current capacity is 3500 tU/yr, about one tenth from heap leaching.  Some production has been exported to France, Sweden and Spain.

 A lesser amount of production is from new operations at Khiagda in Buryatiya about 500 km northwest of Priargunsky's operations, and  from Dalur in the Kurgan region between Chelyabinsk and Omsk, just east of the Urals, also known as the Zauralsk uranium region.  Both are low-cost (US$ 40/kg) in situ leach (ISL) operations. Uksyanskoye is the town supporting Dalur mine, Rudnik Kadala that for Khiagda.  JSC Khiagda reports estimated resources of 100,000 tU.

In 2008 ARMZ said that it intends to triple production to 10,300 tU per year by 2015, with some help from Cameco, Mitsui and local investors.  ARMZ plans to invest RUB 203 billion (US$ 6.1billion) in the development of uranium mining in Russia in 2008-2015.  It aims for 20,000 tU per year by 2024.

Production would be expanded at Priargunsky from 3000 to 5000 tU/yr by 2020, with Mine #6 construction to begin in 2009 for stage 1 production in 2019 and stage 2 in 2024.  Mine #8 is due to begin producing in 2011.  Production at Dalur is to be increased from 350 to 1000 tU/yr by 2015 (expanding from the Dalmatovskoye deposit to Khoklovskoye then Dobrovolskoye) and at Khiagda (Khiagdinskoye deposit) from 30 to 1000 tU/yr by 2012 and 2000 tU/yr by 2020.  Total cost is projected at 67 billion rubles ($2 billion), mostly at Priargunsky, with RUB 4.8 billion ($144 million) there by end of 2009 including a new $30 million, 500 tonne per day sulfuric acid plant which is due to be commissioned in June 2009, replacing a 1976 acid plant. 

Development of Olovskoye and Gornoye deposits*  in the Transbaikal region near Priargunsky and Khiagda would add 600 tU/yr production from each by 2017 for 135 billion rubles ($5.7 billion). In 2007 newly-formed ARMZ set up two companies to undertake this: 

- Uranium Mining Company Gornoye to develop the Gornoye and Berezovoye mines in the Krasnochikoysky and Uletovsky districts in Chita, with underground mining and some heap leach (ore grade 0.226%U); and

- Olovskaya Mining & Chemical Company to develop the Olovskoye deposits in the Chernyshevsk district of Chita region with underground, open cut and heap leach (ore grade 0.88%U).

* 2006 plans were for 2000t/yr at new prospects in Chita Region and Buryatia (Gornoye, Berezovoye, Olovskoye, Talakanskoye properties etc.), plus some 3000t at new deposits.

 However, ARMZ’s principal focus announced in 2008 is development of the massive Elkon project with several mines in the Sakha republic (Yakutia) some 1200 km north-northeast of the Chita region.  Production would ramp up from 2013, to 3000 tU in 2015 and 5000 tU/yr by 2024, for RUB 90.5 billion ($2.7 billion) - confirming 2006 plans.  ARMZ set up two companies:.

- Elkon Mining & Chemical Combine (EMMC) to develop the substantial Elkonsky deposits;

- JSC Lunnoye is set up to develop a small deposit jointly by ARMZ and a gold mining company Zoloto Seligdara as a pilot project to gain practical experience in the region in a polymetallic orebody.

The Elkon MMC project involves the JSC Development Corporation of South Yakutia and aims to attract outside funding to develop infrastructure and mining in a public-private partnership, with ARMZ holding 51%.  Foreign equity including from Japan, South Korea and India is envisaged.  The Elkon MMC developments are to become “the locomotive of the economic development of the entire region”, building the infrastructure, electricity transmission lines, roads and railways, as well as industrial facilities, from 2010.  Of 15 proposed construction sites, three have been tentatively selected: at the mouth of Anbar River, Diksi Village and Ust-Uga Village.  The building of four small floating co-generation plants to supply heat and electricity to northern regions of Yakutia is linked with the Elkon project in southern Yakutia.

There are eight deposits in the Elkon project with resources of 320,000 tU (RAR + IR) at average 0.146%U, with gold by-product: Elkon, Elkon Plateau, Kurung, Neprokhodimoye, Druzhnoye (southern deposits), as well as Severnoye, Zona Interesnoye and Lunnoye (see above).  First production from EMMC is expected in 2013 ramping up to 5000 tU/yr by 2024, making it Russia's largest uranium mining complex.  However, it is remote, and mining will be underground, incurring significant development costs.

Plans announced in 2006 for 28,600 t/yr U₃O₈ output by 2020, 18,000t of this from Russia* and the balance from Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan and Mongolia have since taken shape as outlined above.  In April 2007 an agreement was signed with Mongolia for uranium exploration, mining and processing.

* See details for April 2008 ARMZ plans.  In 2007 TVEL applied for the Istochnoye, Kolichkanskoye, Dybrynskoye, Namarusskoye and Koretkondinskoye deposits with 30,000 tU in proved and probable reserves close to the Khiagda mine in Buryatia.
From foreign projects: Zarechnoye 1000 t, Southern Zarechnoye 1000 t, Akbastau 3000 t (all in Kazakhstan); Aktau (Uzbekistan) 500 t, Novo-Konstantinovskoye (Ukraine) 2500 t. In addition Russia would like to participate in development of Erdes deposit in Mongolia (500t) as well as in Northern Kazakhstan deposits Semizbai (Akmolonsk Region) and Kosachinoye. 

In 2006 Priargunsky won a tender to develop Argunskoye and Zherlovoye deposits in the Chita with about 40,000 tU reserves. Khiagdinsk, Dolmatovsk and Khokhlovsk have also been identified as three new mines to be developed.

In May 2007 Tenex (now ARMZ) won its bid to develop eight deposits in the Elkon area of southern Yakutia with reported resources of 320,000 tU: Elkon, Elkon Plateau, Kurung, Neprokhodimoye, Druzhnoye, Severnoye, Interesnoye & Lunnoye. First production is expected in 2013 ramping up to 5000 tU/yr by 2020, making it Russia's largest uranium mining complex. Some US$ 3.6 billion is to be invested in the Elkon project.

In October 2006 Japan's Mitsui & Co with Tenex agreed to undertake a feasibility study for a uranium mine in eastern Russia to supply Japan. First production from the Yuzhnaya mine in Sakha (Yakutia) Republic is envisaged for 2009. Mitsui has an option to take 25% of the project, and is funding $6 million of the feasibility study. Construction of the Yuzhnaya mine is likely to cost US$ 245 million, with production reaching 1000 tU/yr by 2015. This would represent the first foreign ownership of a Russian uranium mine.

Two uranium mining joint ventures have been established in Kazakhstan with the intention of providing 6000 tU/yr for Tenex (now ARMX) from 2007: JV Zarechnoye and JV Akbastau for mining at Budenovskoye.  (see Kazakhstan paper) 

Following from previous deals with Tenex, In November 2007 Cameco signed an agreement with ARMZ.  The two companies are to create joint ventures to explore for and mine uranium in both Russia and Canada, starting with identified deposits in northwestern Russia and the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Nunavut.

The Federal Subsoil Resources Management Agency (Rosnedra) said in late 2008 that it is planning to transfer about 100,000 tonnes of uranium resources to miners, notably ARMZ, in 2009-10, and 14 projects, mainly small to medium deposits, have been prepared for licensing then.  They are located mainly in Streltsovskiy, Zauralskiy and Vitimskiy uranium regions. 

The projects prepared for licensing include:

in Chita Region - Zherlovskoye, Pyatiletnee, Dalnee and Durulguevskoye;
in Republic of Buratiya - Talakanskoye, Vitlausskoye, Imskoye, Tetrakhskoye, and Dzhilindinskoye;
in Kurgan Region - Dobrovolnoye;
in Khabarovsk Territory - Lastochka;
in Republic of Tyva - Ust-Uyuk and Onkazhinskoye;
in Republic of Khakassia - Primorskoye.

All together these projects have 76,600 tonnes of reasonably assured and inferred resources, plus 106,000 tonnes of undiscovered resources.

In February 2009 Rosnedra published a list of deposits to be offered for tender in 2009 . They are located in the Republic of Karelia, Irkutsk Region and Leningrad Region.  In particular, Tyumenskiy in Mamsko-Chuiskiy District of Irkutsk Region is to be offered for development. Also, in the second quarter of 2009 Shotkusskaya ploshchad in Lodeinopolsky District of Leningrad Region will be put out to tender.  In the Republic of Karelia the offer comprises Salminskaya ploshchad in Pitkyaranskiy District and the Karku deposit.  None of these 2009 offerings has reasonably assured or inferred resources quoted, only "undiscovered" resources in Russia's P1 to P3 categories.

In addition to ARMZ, private companies may also participate in tenders for mining the smaller and remote uranium deposits being prepared for licensing. ARMZ is open to relevant investment projects with strategic partners, and Lunnoye deposit is an example where a private company Zoloto Seligdara is partnering with ARMZ.

Secondary supplies:

Some uranium also comes from reprocessing used fuel from VVER-440, fast neutron and submarine reactors - some 2500 tonnes of uranium has so far been recycled into RBMK reactors.

Also arising from reprocessing used fuels, some 32 tonnes of plutonium has been accumulated for use in MOX. Added to this there is now 34 tonnes of weapons-grade plutonium from military stockpiles to be used in MOX fuel for BN-600 and BN-800 fast neutron reactors at Beloyarsk, supported by a $400 million payment from the USA. Some of this weapons plutonium may also be used in the MHR high-temperature gas-cooled reactor under development at Seversk.

The uranium supply is expected to suffice for at least 80 years, or more if recycling is increased. However, from 2020 it is intended to make more use of fast neutron reactors.

Fuel Cycle Facilities: front end  

Many of Russia's fuel cycle facilities were originally developed for military use and hence are located in former closed cities (names bracketed) in the country.

The main operating conversion plant is at Angarsk near Irkutsk in Siberia, with 18,700 tonnes U/yr capacity. Elektrostal, 50 km east of Moscow, has 700 tU/yr capacity for reprocessed uranium from VVER-440 fuel. Some conversion of Kazakh uranium has been undertaken for west European company Nukem.

The Angarsk plant is part of the JSC Angarsk Electrolysis & Chemical Combine in the Irkutsk region, whose prime function is conversion and enrichment of uranium.

Four enrichment plants totalling 24 million kg SWU/yr of centrifuge capacity operate at Novouralsk near Yekaterinburg in the Urals, and Zelenogorsk (Krasnoyarsk-45), Seversk near Tomsk and Angarsk near Irkutsk - all in Siberia. The first two service foreign demand and the last specialises in enriching reprocessed uranium.

The Novouralsk plant is part of the Urals Electrochemical Combine in the Sverdlovsk region.

The Zelenogorsk plant is also known as the PA Electrochemical Plant in the Krasnoyarsk region.

The Seversk plant is part of the JSC Siberian Chemical Combine, Tomsk region, which opened in 1953.  It is about 15 km from Tomsk.  As well as the enrichment plant the site has several plutonium production reactors (now closed), a MOX plant and other facilities.

Diffusion technology was phased out by 1992 and all plants now operate modern gas centrifuges, with further fitting of 8th generation equipment in progress.  The last 6th & 7th generation centrifuges were set up in 2005, 8th generation equipment has been supplied since 2004, now at about 240,000 units per year and are replacing 5th generation models.  (6th generation units are still produced for export to China.)  The technology is attributed by Nuclear.Ru to VNIPIET in St Petersburg.

The Novouralsk plant is the largest (10 M SWU/yr) and can enrich to 30% U-235 (for research and BN fast reactors), the others only to 5% U-235.  The JSC Electrochemical Plant (ECP) at  Zelenogorsk is 5.8 M SWU/yr and is introducing ISO9001 quality assurance system. It is also the site for downblending of ex-weapons uranium for sale to the USA. A significant proportion of the capacity of both plants is taken up by enrichment of former tails (depleted uranium), including for west European comapnies Areva and Urenco. Seversk is about 3 M SWU/yr and Angarsk about 2.6 million SWU/yr.

Some recycled uranium is enriched by the Siberian Chemical Combine at Seversk for Areva.

In 2008 Kazatomprom set up a JV with Tenex for financing a 5 million SWU/yr increment to the Angarsk plant.  Each party will contribute about US$ 1.6 billion and hold 50% equity.  This is distinct from the IUEC.

The International Uranium Enrichment Centre (IUEC) is being set up at Angarsk, near Irkutsk - the smallest of three Siberian plants and part of the Angarsk Electrochemical Combine (see following section). Two projects are under way to increase the capacity of this from 2.6 to 4.2 and then to almost 10 million SWU/yr by 2015. The latter stage will be with Kazakhstan and other IUEC partners, who will share the $2.5 billion cost.  See below.

At Zelenogorsk, Tenex is building a 10,000 t/yr deconversion (defluorination) plant under a technology transfer agreement with Areva NC, so that depleted uranium can be stored long-term as uranium oxide. (It is the same as one at Pierrelatte in France.) The plant will start commissioning in 2009.

Fuel fabrication is undertaken by JSC TVEL, which supplies 74 nuclear power plants in Russia and abroad as well as 30 research reactors and fuel for naval and icebreaker reactors.  Its operations are certified against ISO 9001.

TVEL has two fuel fabrication plants:

- the huge Maschinostroitelny Zavod (MSZ) at Elektrostal 50 km east of Moscow - known as Elemash,
- Novosibirsk Chemical Concentrates Plant (NCCP) in Siberia, and
- Chepetsk Mechanical Plant (CMP) near Glazov in Udmurtiya makes zirconium cladding and also some uranium products.

Most fuel pellets for RBMK and VVER-1000 reactors were being made at the Ulba plant at Ust Kamenogorsk in Kazakhstan, but Elemash and Novosibirsk have increased production. MSZ produces fuel assemblies for both Russian and west European rectors using fresh and recycled uranium. It also fabricates research reactor and icebreaker fuel. Novosibirsk produces mainly VVER 440 & 1000 fuel. MSZ/Elemash is the principal exporter of fuel assemblies.

TVEL's Moscow Composite Metal Plant designs and makes control and protection systems for nuclear power reactors. 

International Uranium Enrichment Centre (IUEC)  

The IUEC concept was inaugurated at the end of 2006 in collaboration with Kazakhstan, and in March 2007 the IAEA agreed to set up a working group and continue developing the proposal.  In September 2007 the joint stock company Angarsk International Uranium Enrichment Centre (JSC Angarsk IUEC) was registered and a year later Rostechnadzor licensed the Centre.  Late in 2008 Ukraine's Nuclear Fuel Holding Company took a 10% stake in it, matching Kazatomprom's 10%.  Armenia has also decided to participate in IUEC, while accession negotiations proceed with South Korea, Finland, and Belgium.  Mongolia is reported to be interested, and Russia has invited India to participate in order to secure fuel for its Kudankulam plant.  The aim is for Techsnabexport eventually to hold only 51%.  Each 1% share is priced at US$ 7500.

The centre is to provide assured supplies of low-enriched uranium for power reactors to new nuclear power states and those with small nuclear programs, giving them equity in the project, but without allowing them access to the enrichment technology.  Russia will maintain majority ownership.  IUEC will sell both enrichment services (SWU) and enriched uranium product.  Arrangements for IAEA involvement are being sorted out in 2009, and in 2010 a feasibility study will be commenced on IUEC investment, initially for equity in JSC Angarsk Electrolysis & Chemical Combine (AECC) so that part of its capacity supplies product to IUEC shareholders.

The existing enrichment plant at Angarsk will feed the IUEC and accordingly has been removed from the category of "national strategic installations", though it has never been part of the military program. In February 2007 the IUEC was entered into the list of Russian nuclear facilities eligible for implementation of IAEA safeguards.  The USA has expressed support for the IUEC at Angarsk.

Development of the IUEC will be in three phases:

1. Use part of the existing capacity at Angarsk in cooperation with Kazatomprom and under IAEA supervision,
2. Expand capacity (perhaps double) with funding from new partners,
3. Full internationalisation with involvement of many customer nations under IAEA auspices.

Russia has also announced that guaranteed reserves of 160 tonnes of low-enriched uranium hexafluoride (120 tU as UF6, assay 2.0 - 4.95%) will be held at IUEC as a fuel bank under IAEA control and available at IAEA discretion - equivalent to two full core loads for a 1000 MWe reactor.  It will be held at Russia's expense and priced for sale to IAEA according to a formula based on preceding spot prices.

Used Fuel and Reprocessing, Wastes

Russian policy is to close the fuel cycle as far as possible and utilise recycled uranium, and eventually also to use plutonium in MOX fuel. However, its achievements in doing this are limited.

At present the used fuel from RBMK reactors and from VVER-1000 reactors is stored (mostly at reactor sites) and not reprocessed.

Used fuel from VVER-440 reactors, the BN-600 and from naval reactors is reprocessed at the Mayak Chemical Combine's 400 t/yr RT-1 plant (Chelyabinsk-65) at Ozersk, near Kyshtym 70 km northwest of Chelyabinsk  in the Urals.  The original reprocessing plant at the site was hastily built in the mid 1940s, for military plutonium production in association with five producer reactors (the last shut down in 1990).  The RT-1 plant started up in 1971 and employs the Purex process. Recently it has run at about one third capacity, following the loss of foreign contracts.  About 93% of its feed is from Russian and Ukrainian VVER-440 reactors, about 3% from naval sources or icebreakers and 3% from BN-600.  Recycled uranium is enriched to 2.6% U-235 by mixing RepU product from different sources and used in fresh RBMK fuel, while separated plutonium is stored.  High-level wastes are vitrified. and stored.  Plans to upgrade the RT-1 plant and enable it to take VVER-1000 fuel, have been approved and were to be completed in 2008.  Used fuel storage capacity is being increased from 6000 to 9000 tonnes.

The partly-built larger RT-2 plant at Zheleznogorsk (Krasnoyarsk-26) in Siberia has been cancelled and was to be dismantled. However, this may be under review and it could form part of the new Global Nuclear Infrastructure Initiative (see international section below). A 6000 tonne pool storage was built in 1985 and some VVER-1000 used fuel is stored there pending reprocessing. This RT-2 pool storage is planned to be refurbished.  (A dual-purpose graphite-moderated reactor principally producing military plutonium, with associated underground reprocessing plant, is also there.)

Since 2004 an 8600 tonne dry storage facility for used fuel has been under construction at Zheleznogorsk and this is due to be completed in 2010 at a cost of about US$ 500 million for the Mining & Chemical Combine (MCC).  Initially it will take RBMK fuel from Leningrad and Kursk power plants.  Further stages will increase capacity to 36,000 tonnes by 2016.

A small MOX fuel fabrication plant has operated at the Mayak plant at Ozersk since 1993.  It can produce 40 fuel assemblies per year for fast reactors.  A 60 t/yr commercial MOX fabrication plant was planned at Zheleznogorsk (the site of the ADE2 military plutonium production reactor which is due to be shut down in mid 2009).  Another MOX plant for disposing of military plutonium is planned at Seversk (Tomsk-7) in Siberia, to the same design as its US equivalent.  (Seversk had the other two dual-purpose but basically military plutonium production reactors, totalling 2500 MWt.  One of these - ADE4 - was shut down in April 2008, the other - ADE5 - in June 2008.) 

No waste repository is yet available, though site selection is proceeding in granite on the Kola Peninsula.  In 2003 Krasnokamensk in the Chita region 7000 km east of Moscow was suggested as the site for a major spent fuel repository.

Low- and Intermediate-level wastes are mostly handled similarly to those in other countries. Radon is the organisation responsible for medical and industrial radioactive wastes.  It has 16 storage sites for wastes up to intermediate level.  Outside Moscow, the major Radon facility has both laboratories and disposal sites.

However, Russia also uses deep-well injection for low- and intermediate-level wastes from some facilities, notably Seversk, Zeleznogorsk and Dimitrovgrad.  These are mainly wastes from reprocessing.  A Central Europe review report in 1999 said that the wells ranged up to 1500 metres deep, and that Seversk was the maing site utilising the method, with 30 million cubic metres injected.

Decommissioning  

Five civil reactors are being decommissioned: an experimental 50 MWe LWGR type at Obninsk which started up in 1954, two early and small LWGR (AMB-100) units - Beloyarsk 1 & 2, and two larger prototype VVER-440 units at Novovoronezh, a V-210 and V-365 type. The last four were shut down 1981-90 and await dismantling. The fuel has been removed from these and that from Novovoronezh has been shipped to centralised storage in Zheleznogorsk and will be stored there for about ten years before reprocessing. The Beloyarsk fuel is still on site since reprocessing technology for it is not available.

Two nuclear powered icebreakers have been decommissioned: Lenin and Sibir, also the support vessel: Lepse which holds some used nuclear fuel from the Arctic fleet.

Several plutonium production reactors also remain to be decommissioned.

Several plutonium production reactors also remain to be decommissioned.

The government said it plans to spend some $5 billion to 2015 on decommissioning and waste management.

Organisation  

The State Corporation (SC) Rosatom took over Russia's nuclear industry in 2007, from the Federal Atomic Energy Agency (FAEA, also known as Rosatom).  This was formed from the Ministry for Atomic Energy (Minatom) in 2004, which had succeeded a Soviet ministry in 1992.  The civil parts of the industry, with a history of over 60 years, are consolidated under AtomEnergoProm (AEP). 

During 2008 there has been a major reorganisation or "privatisation" of nuclear industry entities involving change from Federal State Unitary Enterprises (FSUE) to Joint Stock Companies (JSC), with most or all of the shares held by AtomEnergoProm.  By mid August 2008, 38 of 55 civil nuclear FSUEs had been reformed.  Some renaming occurred due to new restrictions on the use of "Russia" or derivatives (eg "Ros") in JSC names.

The State Nuclear Energy Corporation Rosatom (as distinct from Rosatom agency) is a non-profit company set up in 2007 to hold all nuclear assets on behalf of the state.  In particular, it will hold all the shares in the civil holding company AtomEnergoProm (AEP).  It took over the functions of the Rosatom agency and works with the Ministries of Industry and Energy (MIE) and of Economic Development and Trade (MEDT) but does not report to any particular ministry. 

SC Rosatom divisions are:
- Nuclear defence
- Nuclear & Radiation Safety (now including Radon - see below)State Nuclear Energy Corporation Rosatom
- Nuclear Power - Atomenergoprom
- Research & Training
- Atomflot - Arctic fleet of 7 nuclear icebreakers and one nuclear merchant ship.

AtomEnergoProm is the single vertically-integrated state holding company for Russia's nuclear power sector, separate from the military complex.  It was set up at the end of 2007 to include uranium production, engineering, design, reactor construction, power generation and research institutes in its several branches, but not used fuel reprocessing or disposal facilities for the time being.  The April 2007 Presidential decree establishing it specifies nuclear materials, which may be owned exclusively by the state, lists Russian legal entities allowed to possess nuclear materials and facilities, existing joint stock companies to be incorporated into the Atomenergoprom, and lists federal state unitary enterprises to be corporatized first and incorporated into the Atomenergoprom at a later stage.  Exclusive state ownership of nuclear materials had been seen as a barrier to competitiveness and other Russian corporate entities will now be allowed to hold civil-grade nuclear materials, under state control. 

Entities from Atomenergoprom itself down to various third-level subsidiaries will be joint stock companies eventually.  Public investment in the bottom level operations is envisaged - the joint venture between Alstom and Atomenergomash to provide large turbines and generators is cited as an example.

JSC AtomEnergoProm's entities include the following (most are JSCs):

- ARMZ Uranium Holding Co (formerly AtomRedMetZoloto)  – uranium production – owns Russian mine assets and foreign JV shares

- Technabexport (Tenex) - enrichment, foreign trade in uranium products and services,

- TVEL - nuclear fuel fabrication,
- St Petersburg Atomenergoproekt - power plant design,
- Moscow Atomenergoproekt (AEP) - power plant design,
- Nizhny-Novgorod Atomenergoproekt (AEP) - power plant design,

- VNIPIET – design of nuclear power projects,

- Atomstroyexport (ASE) - construction of nuclear plants abroad.

- Energospetsmontazh – construction and assembly, also repair of nuclear plants,
- Atomenergomash (AEM) - a group of companies building reactors,
- OKBM Afrikantov (formerly just OKBM - Experimental Design Bureau of Machine-building - Mashinostroyeniya) at Nizhny Novgorod- reactor design and construction,
- OKB Gidropress (Experimental Design Bureau pressurised water - Hydropress) at Podolsk near Moscow - PWR reactor design,
- Energoatom (formerly Rosenergoatom) - responsible for construction and operation of nuclear power generation,

- Atomenergoremont – maintenance and upgrading of nuclear power plants

- Research & Development Institute for Power Engineering (NIKIET) at Moscow - power plant design (originally: submarine power plants)

Atomstroyexport (ASE) emerged from the reorganisation as a closed joint stock company owned by Atomenergoprom (50.2%) and Gazprombank (49.8%, it is 69% owned by Gazprom).  Early in 2009 the Atomenergoprom and related equity was increased to 89.3% by additional share issue, leaving Gazprombank with 10.7%.  It is responsible for export of nuclear plants to China, Iran, India and Bulgaria.

InterRAO was formerly a joint venture of Rosenergoatom and RAO UES, the utility which was broken up in mid 2008.  It is now 57.3% owned by Rosatom and focused on electricity generation in areas such as Armenia and the Kaliningrad part of Russia, as an exporter and importer of electricity.

In July 2008 the divisions of Atomernergoproekt were converted to joint stock companies, with all shares held by Atomenergoprom.  St Petersburg Atomenergoproekt works closely with Atomstroyexport (ASE) on exported plants and is responsible for Leningrad II plant under construction.

Nizhny-Novgorod AEP is building plants at Volgodonsk and Kalinin, where it has linked with ASE to utilize some 1980s VVER equipment not required for Bulgaria's new Belene plant.  Moscow AEP is building Novovoronezh (though some reports NN AEP is involved there).

Rostechnadzor is the regulator, set up in 1992, reporting direct to the President.  Because of the links with military programs, a culture of secrecy pervaded the old Soviet nuclear power industry.  After the 1986 Chernobyl accident, changes were made and a nuclear safety committee established.  The State Committee for Nuclear and Radiation Safety - Gosatomnadzor (GAN) succeeded this in 1992, being responsible for licensing, regulation and operational safety of all facilities, for safety in transport of nuclear materials, and for nuclear materials accounting.  Its inspections can result in legal charges against operators.  However, on some occasions when it suspended operating licences in the 1990s, Minatom successfully overrode this.  In 2004 GAN was renamed the Federal Technological & Atomic Supervisory Service: Rostechnadzor.

Safety has evidently been improving at Russian nuclear power plants. In 1993 there were 29 incidents rating level 1 and higher on the INES scale, in 1994 there were nine, and since then to 2003, no more than four.  Also, up until 2001 many employees received annual radiation doses of over 20 mSv, but since 2002 very few have done so.

UES was the electricity monopoly and also operated fossil fuel power stations, but it has now been broken up.

The former main nuclear fabrication company, Atommash, was established in 1973 at Volgodonsk and went bankrupt in 1995.  It was then profoundly restructured and resurrected as EMK-Atommash before becoming part of JSC Energomash, a major diversified engineering company apparently independent of Rosatom/AEP.  Atommash has now largely moved away from nuclear equipment, though Atomenergomash (part of AEP) is reported to be keen to resuscitate it as an alternative heavy equipment supplier to OMZ.  In 2009 Atomenergomash was doing due diligence on the Energomash group, apparently with a view to taking a half share in it, "to create competition in the segment of monopoly suppliers of long-lead nuclear equipment.”

Objedinennye Mashinostroitelnye Zavody (OMZ - Uralmash-Izhora Group) itself is the largest heavy industry company in Russia, and has a wide shareholding.  Izhorskiye Zavody, the country's main reactor component supplier, became part of the company in 1999, and Skoda Steel and Skoda JS in Czech Republic joined in 2003.  OMZ is expected to produce the forgings for all new domestic AES-2006 model VVER-1200 nuclear reactors (four per year from 2016), plus exports.  At present Izhora can produce the heavy forgings required for Russia's VVER-1000 reactors at the rate of two per year, and it is manufacturing components for the first two Leningrad II VVER-1200 units.

Early in 2006 Rosenergoatom set up a subsidiary to supply floating nuclear power plants (BNPPs) ranging in size from 70 to 600 MWe. The plants are designed by OKBM in collaboration with others. The pilot plant, now under construction, is 70 MWe plus heat output and incorporates two KLT-40S reactors based on those in icebreakers.

Radon is the organisation responsible for medical and industrial radioactive wastes. It has 16 storage sites for wastes up to intermediate level and operates some facilities at nuclear power and submarine decommissioning sites. 

Exports 

Soviet exports of enrichment services began in 1973, and Russia has strongly continued this, along with exports of radioisotopes. After 1990, uranium exports began, through Tenex.

Exports of nuclear fuel cycle goods and services topped US$ 2 billion in 1999, including $500 million in fuel assemblies and $1.6 billion in other goods and services. Exports were US$ 2.5 billion in 2001 and and rose to $3.5 billion in 2004. In 2006 they were again US$ 3.5 billion. Russia provides nearly one third of European uranium needs and is also selling diluted ex-military uranium for civil use through USA.

The latter "Megatonnes to Megawatts" program supplies about 15% of world reactor requirements for enriched uranum and is part of a US$ 12 billion deal between US and Russian governments, with a non-proliferation as well as commercial rationale. However, Rosatom confirmed in mid 2006 that no follow-on program of selling Russian high-enriched uranium from military stockpiles was anticipated once this program concludes in 2013. The 20-year program is equivalent to about 153,000 tonnes of natural uranium.

Rosatom claimed to be able to undercut world prices for nuclear fuel and services by some 30%.

In May 2009 Tenex signed long-term enrichment services contacts with three US utilities - AmerenUE, Luminant and Pacific Gas & Electric - and one in Japan - Chubu.  The contracts cover supply from 2014 to 2020.  Then in June it signed a contract for supply of enriched uranium product over the same period with Exelon, the largest US nuclear utility.

It was also pushing ahead with plans to store and probably reprocess foreign spent fuel, and earlier the Russian parliament overwhelmingly supported a change in legislation to allow this. The proposal involved some 10% of the world's spent fuel over ten years, or perhaps up to 20,000 tonnes of spent fuel, to raise US$ 20 billion, two thirds of which would be invested in expanding civil nuclear power. In July 2001 President Putin signed into effect three laws including one to allow this import of spent nuclear fuel.

The President also set up a special commission to approve and oversee any spent fuel accepted, with five members each from the Duma, the Council, the government and presidential nominees, chaired by Dr Zhores Alferov, a parliamentarian, Vice-President of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Nobel Prize physicist.

This scheme was progressed in 2005 when the Duma ratified the Vienna Convention on civil liability for nuclear damage. However in July 2006 Rosatom announced it would not proceed with taking any foreign-origin used fuel.

Atomstroyexport (ASE) has three reactor construction projects abroad, all involving VVER-1000 units. First, it took over building a reactor for Iran at the Bushehr power plant, a project commenced by Siemens KWU but then aborted. Then it sold two large new AES-91 power plants to China for Jiangsu Tianwan at Lianyungang (both now operating) and two AES-92 units to India for Kudankulam (under construction, start-up due in 2008). It is likely that ASE will build a second unit at Bushehr and agreements have been signed for two more at Tianwan in China, which may be VVER-1200 type. In 2007 a memorandum of understanding was signed to build four more units at Kudankalam (reaffirmed early in 2008) and more elsewhere in India.

Russia's policy for building nuclear power plants in non-nuclear weapons states is to deliver on a turn-key basis including supply of all fuel and repatriation of used fuel for the life of the plant.

When China called for competitive bids for four large third-generation reactors to be built at Sanmen and Yangjiang, ASE unsuccessfully bid the AES-92 power plant for these.

In October 2006 its bid for two AES-92 units for Belene was accepted by Bulgaria. ASE leads a consortium including Areva NP and Bulgarian enterprises in the EUR 4.0 billion project.

ASE is reported to be under consideration by Fortum to supply Finland's sixth nuclear power reactor if it is built at Loviisa.  It is also considered a leading contender to build two large reactors in Belarus, and will almost certainly build the first of a series of small reactors (probably VBER-300) in Kazakhstan.

A potentially wide-ranging memorandum of understanding with Enel of Italy is for cooperation on nuclear power projects in Eastern and Central Europe (where Enel has a major presence), using Russian technology.  Most of these export prospects bring ASE into direct competition with western reactor vendors.

Since 2006 Rosatom has actively pursued cooperation deals in South Africa, Namibia, Chile and Morocco as well as with Egypt, Algeria, Vietnam and Bangladesh.  Tenex has also entered agreements to mine and explore for uranium in South Africa (with local companies) and Canada (with Cameco).

In September 2008 ARMZ signed a MOU with a South Korean consortium headed by Kepco on strategic cooperation in developing uranium projects.  This includes joint exploration, mining and sales of natural uranium in the Russian Federation and possibly beyond.

In February 2008 ASE formed an alliance with TechnoPromExport (TPE), an exporter of all other large-scale power generation types. This will rationalize their international marketing.  TPE boasts of having completed 400 power projects in 50 countries around the world totalling some 87 GWe.

International Outlook

Overall there is increasing acceptance of the need to press ahead with nuclear energy in Russia while expanding the country's role internationally at both the front and the back end of the fuel cycle.

Russia's future international role will be built on its reputation over the last decade as a reliable commercial provider of fuel-related services. It is now engaged with international markets in nuclear energy, well beyond its traditional eastern European client states. With the consolidation of western nuclear fuel cycle vendors, the competition may be welcomed.

President Putin's Global Nuclear Infrastructure Initiative was announced early in 2006. This is in line with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 2005 proposal for Multilateral Approaches to the Nuclear Fuel Cycle (MNA) and with the US Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP). The head of Rosatom said that he envisages Russia hosting four types of international nuclear fuel cycle service centres (INFCCs) as joint ventures financed by other countries. These would be secure and maybe under IAEA control. The first is an International Uranium Enrichment Centre (IUEC) - one of four or five proposed worldwide (see separate section). The second would be for reprocessing and storage of used nuclear fuel. The third would deal with training and certification of personnel, especially for emerging nuclear states. In this context there is a need for harmonized international standards, uniform safeguards and joint international centers. The fourth would be for R&D and to integrate new scientific achievements.

Regarding reactor design, Rosatom is keen to be involved in international projects for Generation IV reactor development and is keen to have international participation in fast neutron reactor development, as well as joint proposals for MOX fuel fabrication. In April 2007 Red Star, a government-owned design bureau, and US company Thorium Power agreed to collaborate on testing Thorium Power's seed and blanket fuel assemblies at the Kurchatov Institute with a view to using thorium-based fuel in VVER-1000 reactors. (see Thorium paper for details )

In 2006 the former working relationship with Kazakhstan in nuclear fuel supplies was rebuilt. Kazatomprom has agreed to a major long-term program of strategic cooperation with Russia in uranium and nuclear fuel supply, as well as development of small reactors, effectively reuniting the two countries' interests in future exports of nuclear fuel to China, Japan, Korea, the USA and Western Europe.

In April 2007 a joint venture company to manufacture the turbine and generator portions of new nuclear power plants was announced by French engineering group Alstom and JSC Atomenergomash. The 49:51 Alstom Atomenergomash LLC joint venture, in which both parties will invest EUR 200 million, is established at Podolsk, near Moscow.  It includes the technology transfer of Alstom's state of the art Arabelle steam turbine and generator (available up to 1750 MWe).  First production is expected in 2011 with output reaching three 1200 Me turbine and generator sets per year in 2013.

In September 2007 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) signed an agreement with Russia's Ural Turbine Works (UTZ) to manufacture, supply and service gas and steam turbines in the Russian market. Under the agreement, MHI, Japan's biggest machinery maker, will license its manufacturing technologies for large gas turbines and steam turbines to UTZ - part of the Renova Group. The agreement also calls for a joint venture to be established in Russia to provide after-sales service.

Research & Development

Russia has had substantial R&D on nuclear power for six decades. The premier establishment for this is the Kurchatov Institute in Moscow, which has run twelve research reactors there, six of which are now shut down. The F-1 research reactor there was started up in December 1946 and recently marked its 60th anniversary in operation.

In 1954 the world's first nuclear powered electricity generator began operation in the then closed city of Obninsk at the Institute of Physics and Power Engineering (FEI). The AM-1 (Atom Mirny -- peaceful atom) reactor is water-cooled and graphite-moderated, with a design capacity of 30 MWt or 5 MWe. It was similar in principle to the plutonium production reactors in the closed military cities and served as a prototype for other graphite channel reactor designs including the Chernobyl-type RBMK (reaktor bolshoi moshchnosty kanalny -- high power channel reactor) reactors. AM-1 produced electricity until 1959 and was used until 2000 as a research facility and for the production of isotopes.

Also in the 1950s the FEI at Obninsk was developing fast breeder reactors (FBRs). In 1955 the BR-1 (bystry reaktor -- fast reactor) fast neutron reactor began operating. It produced no power but led directly to the BR-5 which started up in 1959 with a capacity of 5MWt which was used to do the basic research necessary for designing sodium-cooled FBRs. It was upgraded and modernised in 1973 and then underwent major reconstruction in 1983 to become the BR-10 with a capacity of 8 MWt which is now used to investigate fuel endurance, to study materials and to produce radioisotopes.

The BOR-60 fast reactor is operated by the Russian Institute of Atomic Reactors (RIAR) at Dimitrovgrad, 1300 km SE of Moscow, along with six other research reactors. It started up in 1969 and is to be replaced about 2015 with a 100 MW sodium-cooled fast reactor. This will be a research reactor capable of testing lead, lead-bismuth and gas coolants as well as sodium, and running on MOX fuel. RIAR intends to set up an on-site closed fuel cycle, using pyrochemical reprocessing it has developed at pilot scale.

In 2009 the Moscow Engineering and Physics Institute (MEPhI) was renamed the National Research Nuclear University and reformed to incorporate a number of other educational establishments.  While partly funded by Rosatom, it is the responsibility of the Federal Education Agency (Rosobrazovaniye).

Public Opinion  

An April 2008 survey carried out by the Levada Centre found that 72% of Russians were in favour of at least preserving the country's nuclear power capacity and 41% thought that nuclear was the only alternative to oil and gas as they deplete.  Over half said that they were indignant about Soviet attempts to cover up news of the Chernobyl accident in 1986.

Non-proliferation

Russia is a nuclear weapons state, and a depository state of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) under which a safeguards agreement has been in force since 1985. The Additional Protocol was ratified in 2007.  However, Russia takes the view that voluntary application of IAEA safeguards are not meaningful for a nuclear weapons state and so they are not generally applied. One exception is the BN-600 Beloyarsk-3 reactor which is safeguarded so as to give experience of such units to IAEA inspectors.

However, this policy is modified in respect to some uranium imports.  All facilities where imported uranium under certain bilateral treaties goes must be on the list of those eligible and open to international inspection, and this overrides the voluntary aspect of voluntary offer agreements.  It includes conversion plants, enrichment, fuel fabrication and nuclear power plants.  Also the IUEC at Angarsk will be open to inspection.

Russia undertook nuclear weapons tests from 1949 to 1990.

Russia's last plutonium production reactor which started up in 1964 is due to be closed down in May 2009 - delayed because it also provides district heating, and replacement plant for this will not be ready until then.  The reactor will be held in re